Conductive, anticorrosive magnesium titanium oxide material

ABSTRACT

An anticorrosive, conductive material includes a first oxide having oxygen vacancies and a formula (I): MgTi 2 O 5-δ  (I), where  δ  is any number between 0 and 3 optionally including a fractional part denoting the oxygen vacancies; and a second oxide having a formula (II): Ti a O b  (II), where 1&lt;=a&lt;=20 and 1&lt;=b&lt;=30, optionally including a fractional part, the first and second oxides of formulas (I) and (II) forming a polycrystalline matrix.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 16/675,538 filed Nov. 6, 2019, (now U.S. Pat. No. 11,316,171, issued Apr. 26, 2022), the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated in its entirety by reference herein.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure relates to an anti-corrosive, electrically conductive magnesium titanium oxide material with oxygen vacancies.

BACKGROUND

Metals have been a widely used material for thousands of years. Various methods have been developed to preserve metals and prevent their corrosion or disintegration into oxides, hydroxides, sulfates, and other salts. Metals in some industrial applications are especially susceptible to corrosion due to aggressive operating environments. Non-limiting examples may be metal components of a fuel cell such as a bipolar plate (BPP) or a fuel cell's catalyst support material. In addition, certain components such as the BPP are required to not only be sufficiency chemically inert to resist degradation in the highly corrosive environment of the fuel cell, but also be electrically conducting to facilitate electron transfer for the oxygen reduction reaction of the fuel cell. Finding a material that meets both the requirements has been a challenge.

SUMMARY

According to one embodiment, an anticorrosive, conductive material is disclosed. The material includes a first oxide having oxygen vacancies and a formula (I): MgTi₂O_(5-δ)  (I), where _(δ) is any number between 0 and 3 optionally including a fractional part denoting the oxygen vacancies. The material also includes a second oxide having a formula (II): Ti_(a)O_(b)  (II), where 1<=a<=20 and 1<=b<=30, optionally including a fractional part such that the first and second oxides of formulas (I) and (II) form a polycrystalline matrix. The second oxide may be metallic. Ti_(a)O_(b) may be Ti₂O₃. Ti₂O₃ may form a segregated polycrystalline phase. Ti₂O₃ may be located within about 1 nm to about 100 m from grain boundaries of the matrix. The matrix may include at least about 0.5 wt. % Ti_(a)O_(b), based on the total weight of the material. At least one of the first and second oxides of formulas (I) and (II) may include a dopant including Ge, Nb, Mo, Sn, Ta, W, or a combination thereof. At least one of the first and second oxides of formulas (I) and (II) may include a conducting agent.

In an alternative embodiment, a fuel cell system is disclosed. The system includes an anticorrosive, conductive polycrystalline matrix including a first metal oxide having oxygen vacancies and a formula (I): MgTi₂O_(5-δ)  (I), where _(δ) is any number between 0 and 3 optionally including a fractional part denoting the oxygen vacancies. The matrix also includes a second metal oxide having a formula (II): Ti_(a)O_(b)  (II), where 1<=a<=20 and 1<=b<=30, optionally including a fractional part. Ti_(a)O_(b) may be Ti₂O₃. Ti₂O₃ may form a segregated polycrystalline phase within the matrix. Ti₂O₃ may be located about 1 nm to about 100 m from grain boundaries of the matrix. The matrix may include about at least about 0.5 wt. % Ti_(a)O_(b), based on the total weight of the matrix. At least one of the first and second oxides may include a dopant including Ge, Nb, Mo, Sn, Ta, W, or a combination thereof. The system may also include a fuel cell bipolar plate having the anticorrosive, conductive polycrystalline matrix.

In yet another embodiment, a fuel cell catalyst support material is disclosed. The material includes a first metal oxide having oxygen vacancies and a formula (I): MgTi₂O_(5-δ)  (I), where _(δ) is any number between 0 and 3 optionally including a fractional part denoting the oxygen vacancies. The material also includes a second metal oxide having a formula (II): Ti_(a)O_(b)  (II), where 1<=a<=20 and 1<=b<=30, optionally including a fractional part. The first and second oxides may form a polycrystalline matrix. Ti_(a)O_(b) may be Ti₂O₃. Ti₂O₃ may form a segregated polycrystalline phase. Ti₂O₃ may be located about 1 nm to about 100 μm from grain boundaries of the matrix. The matrix may include at least about 0.5 wt. % Ti_(a)O_(b), based on the total weight of the material.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 depicts a schematic composition of a proton-exchange-membrane fuel cell including a bipolar plate according to one or more embodiments;

FIG. 2 shows a perspective view of a non-limiting example of a bipolar plate having a bulk portion and a surface portion including an anticorrosive and electrically conductive material according to one or more embodiments;

FIG. 3 shows a non-limiting example of a synthesized pellet sample of the disclosed material;

FIGS. 4A and 4B show density of state (DOS) of a MgTi₂O₅ structure indicating insulating behavior and MgTi₂O_(4.92) indicating electrically conducting behavior, respectively;

FIGS. 5A through 5E show chemical structures of (110) MgTi₂O₅, (110) MgTi₂O_(5-δ), (101) TiO₂ (anatase), (110) TiO₂ (rutile), and (001) TiO;

FIG. 6 shows an Arrhenius plot of conductivities from 25° C. to 80° C. for MgTi₂O_(5-δ);

FIG. 7 shows Ti 2p X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS) spectra of the pristine as-synthesized MgTi₂O_(5-δ), MgTi₂O_(5-δ) after being annealed in air, and of TiO₂;

FIG. 8 is an X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of as synthesized MgTi₂O_(5-δ) versus MgTi₂O₅;

FIGS. 9A through 9C are photographs of as-synthesized MgTi₂O_(5-δ), MgTi₂O_(5-δ) after being annealed at 600° C. in air, and MgTi₂O_(5-δ) after being annealed at 1000° C. in air;

FIG. 10 shows a comparison plot of corrosion current density of pristine MgTi₂O_(5-δ), carbon paper, and polished stainless steel (SS) 316;

FIGS. 11A and 11B show schematic depictions of MgTi₂O_(5-δ) as a catalyst support material with a catalyst being deposited as islands or in a core-shell structure, respectively;

FIGS. 12A and 12B are scanning electron microscope (SEM) cross-section images of Pt being sputtered on a non-limiting example of a MgTi₂O_(5-δ) pellet before and after annealing;

FIGS. 13A through 13F show first-principles density functional theory (DFT)-constructed interfaces before and after DFT relaxation between MgTi₂O_(5-δ) and Pt surfaces;

FIG. 14 shows schematic depictions of various Pt particles/facets attached to MgTi₂O_(5-δ) oxide support;

FIGS. 15A and 15B depict chemical structure of (012) Ti₂O₃, where a single hydrogen atom is adsorbed on surface oxygen atom;

FIG. 16 shows DOS of Ti₂O₃ system; and

FIG. 17 shows side-by-side XRD patterns of MgTi₂O₅ and Ti₂O₃.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments of the present disclosure are described herein. It is to be understood, however, that the disclosed embodiments are merely examples and other embodiments may take various and alternative forms. The figures are not necessarily to scale; some features could be exaggerated or minimized to show details of particular components. Therefore, specific structural and functional details disclosed herein are not to be interpreted as limiting, but merely as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art to variously employ the present embodiments. As those of ordinary skill in the art will understand, various features illustrated and described with reference to any one of the figures may be combined with features illustrated in one or more other figures to produce embodiments that are not explicitly illustrated or described. The combinations of features illustrated provide representative embodiments for typical applications. Various combinations and modifications of the features consistent with the teachings of this disclosure, however, could be desired for particular applications or implementations.

Except where expressly indicated, all numerical quantities in this description indicating dimensions or material properties are to be understood as modified by the word “about” in describing the broadest scope of the present disclosure.

The first definition of an acronym or other abbreviation applies to all subsequent uses herein of the same abbreviation and applies mutatis mutandis to normal grammatical variations of the initially defined abbreviation. Unless expressly stated to the contrary, measurement of a property is determined by the same technique as previously or later referenced for the same property.

The term “substantially” or “about” may be used herein to describe disclosed or claimed embodiments. The term “substantially” or “about” may modify a value or relative characteristic disclosed or claimed in the present disclosure. In such instances, “substantially” or “about” may signify that the value or relative characteristic it modifies is within 0%, 0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, or 10% of the value or relative characteristic.

The description of a group or class of materials as suitable for a given purpose in connection with one or more embodiments implies that mixtures of any two or more of the members of the group or class are suitable. Description of constituents in chemical terms refers to the constituents at the time of addition to any combination specified in the description, and does not necessarily preclude chemical interactions among constituents of the mixture once mixed. First definition of an acronym or other abbreviation applies to all subsequent uses herein of the same abbreviation and applies mutatis mutandis to normal grammatical variations of the initially defined abbreviation. Unless expressly stated to the contrary, measurement of a property is determined by the same technique as previously or later referenced for the same property.

Metals present a widely used group of materials in numerous industries including automotive, construction, home appliances, tools, pipes, railroad tracks, coinage, etc. Metals have been utilized for thousands of years and have remained a material of choice for certain applications due to their properties such as strength and resilience. Yet, corrosion of metals is a major source of fatigue and lifetime limitations for a number of applications using metals.

Corrosion is a natural process which converts a refined metal to a more chemically-stable form such as the metal's oxide(s), hydroxide(s), sulfide(s), and/or other salts. The conversion presents a gradual destruction of the metal material caused by electrochemical oxidation of the metal in a reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen or sulfates. Corrosion may be invoked by exposure of the metal substrate to moisture in the air, to a solution with a relatively low pH, various chemical substances such as acids, microbes, elevated temperatures, and/or other factors. Especially in acidic environments, corrosion starts at the interface between a bulk metal material (e.g., steel) and a solution (e.g., ions dissolved in water or water surface layer which react to degrade the bulk material).

Many efforts have been made to prevent or slow down corrosion of metals. For instance, various types of coatings have been developed. Example coatings include applied coatings such as paint, plating, enamel; reactive coatings including corrosion inhibitors such as chromates, phosphates, conducting polymers, surfactant-like chemicals designed to suppress electrochemical reactions between the environment and the metal substrate, anodized surfaces, or biofilm coatings. Other methods of corrosion prevention include controlled permeability framework, cathodic protection, or anodic protection.

Yet the most popular solution to the corrosion problem remains to be fortifying of the vulnerable metal surface with a coating. Most corrosion-resistant surfaces thus include one or more chemically inert coatings or protective layers that can slow down and/or at least partially prevent corrosion from occurring. Still, it has remained a challenge to find a material with substantial anticorrosion properties which would be also friendly to the environment, economical, while having superb performance characteristics.

Moreover, some applications are highly susceptible to corrosion due to their environmental factors. A non-limiting example of such application are proton-exchange-membrane fuel cells (PEMFC). The PEMFC represents an environmental-friendly alternative to internal combustion engines for a variety of vehicles such as cars and buses. The PEMFC typically features a relatively high efficiency and power density. A very attractive feature of the PEMFC engine are no carbon emissions, provided that the hydrogen fuel has been gained in an environmentally-friendly manner. Besides being a green engine, the PEMFC may be used in other applications such as stationary and portable power sources.

The PEMFC's own operating environment lends itself to corrosion for a variety of reasons. For example, low voltages exist between startups and shutdowns of the PEMFC, PEMFC has a strongly acidic environment, fluorine ions are released from the polymer membrane during operation of the PEMFC, both H₂ and O₂ exist at the anode during the startup and shutdown which causes high cathodic potential yielding cathodic corrosion, fuel crossover of hydrogen or oxygen from the anode to cathode or vice versa, etc. The PEMFC thus requires durable components capable of withstanding the above-mentioned conditions.

A non-limiting example of a PEMFC is depicted in FIG. 1. A core component of the PEMFC 10 that helps produce the electrochemical reaction needed to separate electrons is the Membrane Electrode Assembly (MEA) 12. The MEA 12 includes subcomponents such as electrodes, catalysts, and polymer electrolyte membranes. Besides MEA 12, the PEMFC 10 typically includes other components such as current collectors 14, gas diffusion layer(s) 16, gaskets 18, and bipolar plate(s) 20.

The bipolar plates or BPP 20 are implemented in a PEMFC stack to distribute gas, collect current, and separate individual cells in the stack from each other. The BPP 20 also provides additional functions such as removal of reaction products and water as well as thermal management within the PEMFC 10. The BPP 20 is also a relatively expensive component and a frequent reason for degradation of the PEMFC system. For example, BPPs may constitute about 60-80% of the stack weight, about 50% of the stack volume, and about 25-45% of the stack cost. To keep the cost low, the BPP 20 is typically made from metal, for example steel such as stainless steel. Alternative materials such as aluminum or titanium may be used. As the metal plates are susceptible to corrosion within the PEMFC system, efforts have been made to prevent the corrosion.

Additionally, in the PEMFC 10, the BPP 20 presents yet another material challenge as the BPP 20 is also required to be electrically conducting to facilitate electron transfer for the oxygen reduction reaction. Therefore, the BPP 20 material needs to be electrically conducting but chemically inert to reactions with ions present in the PEMFC 10 environment.

Typically, the BPP metal surface contains a coating such as graphite-like coating or protective oxide or nitride coatings to increase corrosion resistance of the BPP 20. The BPP's 20 surface may thus include elements such as Fe, Cr, Ni, Mo, Mn, Si, P, C, S, F, or a combination thereof. Alternative coatings include Ti alloy, doped TiO_(x), Cr₂O₃, TiO₂, TiN, CrN, or ZrN. Yet, in an aggressively corrosive environment such as in the PEMFC 10, where coatings are more likely to degrade faster than in other applications, a need remains for a coating or material that would be economically feasible, corrosion resistant, protective against acids such as HF at PEMFC operating temperature of about 80° C., electrically conductive, and capable of forming a coherent interface (i.e., a small interfacial contact resistance) with the metal substrates at the same time.

The material disclosed herein solves one or more problems described above and/or provides the benefits identified herein. It was surprisingly discovered that the disclosed material provides anticorrosive, conductive properties to a substrate such as the BPP metal substrate. The material encompasses a first oxide material including a variety or a series of Mg—Ti compounds with different contents of oxygen vacancies or, in other words, Mg—Ti compounds with a variety of oxygen-deficient stoichiometries, and a second oxide material.

A non-limiting example of a BPP 20 is shown in FIG. 2. The BPP 20 represents a non-limiting example of a substrate having a solid body or bulk portion 22 and a surface portion 24. The bulk portion 22 may be formed from a metal such as steel, stainless steel, aluminum, copper, an alloy of two or more metals, the like, or a combination thereof. Alternatively, the bulk portion 22 may be formed from a composite material such as carbon-carbon composite, or carbon-polymer composite. Alternatively still, the bulk portion 22 may be made from graphite or another carbon allotrope. In another embodiment, the bulk portion 22 may also include the disclosed material.

The surface portion 24 may include the anticorrosive, chemically inert, electrically conductive, and thermodynamically stable material disclosed herein. The entire area of the surface portion 24 may include the material. Alternatively, the surface portion 24 may include one or more subportions which are free from the material. In an example embodiment, the entire surface portion 24 may include the material such that the entire BPP 20 is protected against corrosion. In other applications such as non-BPP applications, only a small portion of the surface portion 24 may include the material such as less than about ½, ¼, ⅛, 1/16, 1/32, or the like of the surface portion may include the material.

The surface portion 24, the bulk portion 22, or both may include one or more layers of the disclosed material. The material thickness on the surface portion 24 may be adjusted according to the needs of a specific application. A non-limiting example of the material layer thickness may be about 0.1 to 0.8 μm, 0.2 to 0.6 μm, or 0.3 to 0.5 μm. Alternatively, the material may be layered to form a relatively thick deposit with dimensions of more than 1 μm on the surface portion 24 such as about or at least about 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2.0, 2.25, 2.5, 2.75, 3.0, 3.25, 3.5, 3.75, 4.0, 4.25, 4.5, 4.75, 5.0, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 110, 120, 130140, 150, 200, 250 μm or about 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2.0, 2.25, 2.5, 2.75, 3.0, 3.25, 3.5, 3.75, 4.0, 4.25, 4.5, 4.75, 5.0, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 110, 120, 130140, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, or 500 nm. The material may form one or more layers or a plurality of layers on the bulk portion 22. The material may form 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more layers on the bulk portion 22. Each layer may have a thickness within the nanoscale or microscale recited herein with respect to the thickness of the surface portion 24.

The disclosed material includes a first oxide Mg—Ti—O-based material. The disclosed material has a formula (I): MgTi₂O_(5-δ)  (I),

where

δ is any number between 0 and 3 optionally including a fractional part such as decimals and/or hundredths and denotes oxygen vacancies. δ may be 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, or 3.0. δ may be any number between 0 and 3 including tenths, hundredths, or both. δ may be 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 0.11, 0.12, 0.13, 0.14, 0.15, 0.16, 0.17, 0.18, 0.19, 0.20, 0.21, 0.22, 0.23, 0.24, 0.25, 0.26, 0.27, 0.28, 0.29, 0.30, 0.31, 0.32, 0.33, 0.34, 0.35, 0.36, 0.37, 0.38, 0.39, 0.40, 0.41, 0.42, 0.43, 0.44, 0.45, 0.46, 0.47, 0.48, 0.49, 0.50, 0.51, 0.52, 0.53, 0.54, 0.55, 0.56, 0.57, 0.58, 0.59, 0.60, 0.61, 0.62, 0.63, 0.64, 0.65, 0.66, 0.67, 0.68, 0.69, 0.70, 0.71, 0.72, 0.73, 0.74, 0.75, 0.76, 0.77, 0.78, 0.79, 0.80, 0.81, 0.82, 0.83, 0.84, 0.85, 0.86, 0.87, 0.88, 0.89, 0.90, 0.91, 0.92, 0.93, 0.94, 0.95, 0.96, 0.97, 0.98, 0.99, 1.0, 1.01, 1.02, 1.03, 1.04, 1.05, 1.06, 1.07, 1.08, 1.09, 1.1, 1.11, 1.12, 1.13, 1.14, 1.15, 1.16, 1.17, 1.18, 1.19, 1.20, 1.21, 1.22, 1.23, 1.24, 1.25, 1.26, 1.27, 1.28, 1.29, 1.30, 1.31, 1.32, 1.33, 1.34, 1.35, 1.36, 1.37, 1.38, 1.39, 1.40, 1.41, 1.42, 1.43, 1.44, 1.45, 1.46, 1.47, 1.48, 1.49, 1.50, 1.51, 1.52, 1.53, 1.54, 1.55, 1.56, 1.57, 1.58, 1.59, 1.60, 1.61, 1.62, 1.63, 1.64, 1.65, 1.66, 1.67, 1.68, 1.69, 1.70, 1.71, 1.72, 1.73, 1.74, 1.75, 1.76, 1.77, 1.78, 1.79, 1.80, 1.81, 1.82, 1.83, 1.84, 1.85, 1.86, 1.87, 1.88, 1.89, 1.90, 1.91, 1.92, 1.93, 1.94, 1.95, 1.96, 1.97, 1.98, 1.99, 2.0, 2.01, 2.02, 2.03, 2.04, 2.05, 2.06, 2.07, 2.08, 2.09, 2.1, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13, 2.14, 2.15, 2.16, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19, 2.20, 2.21, 2.22, 2.23, 2.24, 2.25, 2.26, 2.27, 2.28, 2.29, 0.30, 2.31, 2.32, 2.33, 2.34, 2.35, 2.36, 2.37, 2.38, 2.39, 2.40, 2.41, 2.42, 2.43, 2.44, 2.45, 2.46, 2.47, 0.48, 2.49, 2.50, 2.51, 2.52, 2.53, 2.54, 2.55, 2.56, 2.57, 2.58, 2.59, 2.60, 2.61, 2.62, 2.63, 2.64, 2.65, 0.66, 2.67, 2.68, 2.69, 2.70, 2.71, 2.72, 2.73, 2.74, 2.75, 2.76, 2.77, 2.78, 2.79, 2.80, 2.81, 2.82, 2.83, 0.84, 2.85, 2.86, 2.87, 2.88, 2.89, 2.90, 2.91, 2.92, 2.93, 2.94, 2.95, 2.96, 2.97, 2.98, 2.99, or 3.00.

δ may be a range including any number named above while excluding at least one number mentioned above. For example, δ may equal 0.1 to 3.0 with the exclusion of 1 and 2. In an alternative example, δ may include one or more ranges of 0.1 to 0.9, 1.1 to 1.9, or 2.1 to 2.9. In a yet another non-limiting example, δ may include one or more ranges of 0.01 to 0.99, 1.10 to 1.99, or 2.10 to 2.99.

In one or more embodiments, the oxygen vacancies within the first oxide contribute to beneficial properties of the material. Thus, the oxygen vacancies are formed and preserved on purpose, and processes which would eliminate presence of oxygen vacancies may be avoided or excluded during the material synthesis and/or use.

Oxygen vacancies in the first oxide may be characterized as a quantitatively smaller amount of oxygen atoms present in the material than expected in the parent material's crystal lattice. Oxygen vacancies are typically formed by removing an oxygen from a compound of oxygen, for example by annealing in a reducing atmosphere of N₂, Ar, or the like. In another embodiment, annealing may be carried out in a vacuum furnace. The oxygen vacancies may render the material non-stoichiometric or deviating from stoichiometry such that the elemental composition of the material may not be represented by a ratio of well-defined natural numbers. The material; however, may be stoichiometric.

In some applications, oxygen vacancies may be perceived as undesirable defects influencing structural, electrical, optical, dissociative and reductive properties, or other properties in a manner which is not suitable for various applications. In contrast, the materials disclosed herein have desirable properties due to oxygen vacancies being present. While a base or parent compound and a material with oxygen vacancies may have common morphology, structure, or lattice to a certain degree, their properties may significantly differ. Such is the case with the disclosed material having oxygen-deficient stoichiometry. The first oxide has crystalline structure alike the parental MgTi₂O₅ phase. But even the crystalline structure differs due to the oxygen deficiencies. For example, the first oxide's lattice may include extra bonds or lack bonds in spaces where the paternal phase includes a bond. An example of the structural differences of the parental MgTi₂O₅ phase and the first oxide may be seen in FIG. 5. In FIG. 5, dark gray large circles represent Ti atoms, light gray large circles represent Mg, small black circles represent O atoms, and small light gray circles represent H atoms.

As can be seen in FIG. 5, the lattice of the parental MgTi₂O₅ phase includes Ti atoms each having precisely four bonds to an oxygen atom and Mg atoms each having either three or five bonds to an oxygen atom. In contrast, the structural lattice of MgTi₂O_(5-δ) includes at least one Ti atom having bonds to five oxygen atoms and/or at least one Mg having only four bonds to oxygen atoms.

Without limiting the disclosure to a single theory, it is believed that due to presence of the oxygen vacancies, the disclosed first oxide has very different properties than the parental phase, for example electrical conductivity as the oxygen vacancy functions as the dominant charge carrier for electrical conduction in the material. An additional difference may be observed in its physical appearance. While the parental MgTi₂O₅ phase is white in color, the disclosed first oxygen has a black to gray appearance with deep blue hue, indicative of the oxygen vacancies. An example of the synthesized first oxide can be seen in FIG. 3 and the color difference, indicative of oxygen vacancies, can be seen in FIGS. 9A-9C.

The disclosed material has good electrical conductivity. The first oxide and the second oxide contribute to the disclosed material's overall good electrical conductivity. The MgTi₂O_(5-δ) may have an electrical conductivity of about 1-15, 1.5-12, or 2-10 S/m at room temperature in ambient environments. The MgTi₂O_(5-δ) may have an electrical conductivity of about, at least about, or up to about 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 8.0, 8.5, 9.0, 9.5, 10, 10.5, 11, 11.5, 12, 12.5, 13, 13.5, 14, 14.5, or 15 S/m, or any range in between, at room temperature in ambient environments.

Electrical conductivity may be expressed via a bandgap (E_(g)), also called an energy gap. The band gap refers to the energy difference between the top of the valence band and the bottom of conduction band. Substances with large bandgaps are typically insulators, and those with smaller bandgaps are called semiconductors. Conductors either have no or zero bandgap (i.e., metallic) or very small bandgaps such as (<1 eV) (i.e., semi-metallic).

The first-principles DFT calculations were carried out to examine conductive behavior of MgTi₂O_(5-δ). The calculations were carried out within the Vienna Ab-initio Simulation Package (VASP) with projected augmented wave potentials and Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof (PBE) formulation of the generalized gradient approximation (GGA). A plane-wave basis set cutoff energy of 520 eV was used.

For the atomistic simulation, the supercell of orthorhombic Cmcm MgTi₂O₅ (space group No. 63) with 12 formula unit was used with the k-point mesh of 3×3×3. From the density of state (DOS) simulation of FIG. 4A, it was found that the DFT bandgap of bulk-MgTi₂O₅ was greater than 2 eV, which indicates that the parental structure MgTi₂O₅ is an insulator. The Fermi level (E_(F)) was set at x=0. Below the fermi level (E_(F)) is the occupied state; and, above the fermi level is unoccupied state.

In contrast, as is shown in FIG. 4B, the presence of oxygen vacancy in the bulk MgTi₂O₅ structure changes the electric conductivity of the material. The Fermi level (E_(F)) of an example specimen of the disclosed first oxide, MgTi₂O_(4.92), is shifted compared to the parental MgTi₂O₅ phase. The E_(F) is occupied (i.e., metallic), which indicates that MgTi₂O_(5-δ) is exhibiting its conducting behavior, which was further verified by experiments discussed below.

The DFT calculations were also utilized to assess anti-corrosive behavior of the disclosed first oxide. DFT slab models were tested with hydrogen adsorption and dissociation reactions. Hydrogen dissociation reactions were tested on (110) MgTi₂O₅, (110) MgTi₂O_(5-δ), (101) TiO₂ (anatase), (110) TiO₂ (rutile), and (001) TiO structures of which are shown in FIG. 5. Each slab model was tested for maximum hydrogen coverage. Table 1 below shows the hydrogen adsorption energy (ΔE_(ads,H)) and maximum hydrogen coverage (θ_(H,cov)) in each slab model.

TABLE 1 Calculated Hydrogen adsorption energy (ΔE_(ads, H)) and maximum hydrogen coverage (θ_(H, cov)) TiO₂ TiO₂ MgTi₂O₅ MgTi₂O_(5-δ) (anatase) (rutile) TiO ΔE_(ads, H) [eV/H] 0.876 1.159 1.010 0.960 1.045 θ_(H, cov) [%] 71.4 30.8 100 100 100

As Table 1 shows, (110) MgTi₂O_(5-δ) has the largest hydrogen adsorption energy, compared to other tested chemical species. This finding directly correlates to the highest H resistivity for (110) MgTi₂O_(5-δ) among the group of the tested species. In addition, (110) MgTi₂O_(5-δ) shows a minimum hydrogen coverage (i.e., least hydrogen dissociation).

The disclosed first oxide may have a nominal chemical composition of about 25-40, 28-35, or 30-33 mol % MgO and 75-60, 72-65, or 70-66 mol % TiO+TiO₂ mixture. The Mg and Ti mol ratio Mg/Ti may be about 0.2-0.8, 0.3-0.60, or 0.4-0.5.

In one or more embodiments, the method of preparing the first oxide is disclosed. The synthesis may include preparing dry powders of MgO, TiO, and/or TiO₂. The method may include forming a mixture of the MgO, TiO, and/or TiO₂. The method may include mixing a first powder of MgO and a second powder premixture of TiO/TiO₂ or TiO. The method may include drying the one or more compounds to be included in the mixture. Drying may be conducted in vacuum or ultra-high vacuum, N₂, Ar, or Ar/H₂ environment. Ultra-high vacuum refers to a regime of pressures lower than about 10⁻⁷ pascal or 100 nanopascals (10⁻⁹ mbar, ˜10⁻⁹ torr).

The mixture may be compressed into any shape or configuration, for example in a mold. A non-limiting example may be compressed pellets. The compressed mixture may be heated by sintering for an amount of time. Sintering is a process of compacting and forming a solid mass of a material by heat and/or pressure without melting it to the point of liquefaction or the material's melting point.

The amount of time may be an amount needed for the powder particles to fuse together and create a solid piece, and/or for the compressed material to change appearance from light gray to blue-black. The sintering may be carried out at a temperature which is below the powder mixture's melting point. The temperature may range from about 400 to 2000° C., 800 to 1800° C., or 1200 to 1500° C. in vacuum, N₂, Ar, or Ar/H₂ environment.

The amount of oxygen vacancies may be tailored depending on the needs of a specific application. The amount of oxygen vacancies may be introduced, controlled, or altered by controlling, adjusting, or controlling the sintering temperature. The amount of oxygen vacancies may be controlled by the TiO/TiO₂ ratio in the powder mixture. The TiO/TiO₂ ratio may be about 0:100, 1:99, 10:90, 20:80, 30:70, 40:80: 50:50, 60:40, 70:30, 80:20, 90:10, 99:1, or 100:0.

It was surprisingly discovered that in contrast to sintering, annealing destroys oxygen vacancies in the disclosed material. Since the oxygen vacancies are desirable in the disclosed material, annealing, as a process of minimizing crystal defects through a heat treatment and involving heating a material above its recrystallization temperature, maintaining a suitable temperature for a certain amount of time, and then cooling in air, should be avoided.

EXAMPLES

Set A

To verify the DFT-derived results, the first oxide was synthesized and tested according to the methods described below.

The first oxide was synthesized by the following method using a dry MgO, TiO and TiO₂ powder mixture. MgO powder was dried at 120° C. for 2 hours in Ar environment. The dried powder was then mixed with TiO/TiO₂ powder to form a mixture. The mixture was pressed into pellets measuring about 12 mm in diameter and 2 mm in thickness under 3000 psi uniaxial load. The as-pressed pellets had a light grey color. The compacted pellets were then loaded in a Al₂O₃ crucible and heated-up for reactive sintering (e.g. at 1450° C.) in vacuum environment (10⁻³ torr) for 10 hours. After sintering, the pellets appeared to be black in color with a blue hue. The method was used to prepare five batches of pellets, each batch containing three to four pellets.

Five sintered pellets, one from each batch, where Au sputtered on both sides of the surface. Afterwards, the pellets were assembled in an EL-Cell® ECC cell. Constant current was applied and voltage values were recorded after about 10 min until the voltage reading stabilized. This step was repeated several times at different currents. Resistance and DC electrical conductivity was calculated by linear slope from fitting the V-I data.

FIG. 6 shows an Arrhenius plot of conductivities from 25° C. to 80° C. Average conductivity and an error bar were calculated from seven different samples made from different batches. The disclosed crystalline MgTi₂O_(5-δ) showed an electrical conductivity of about 2-10 S/m at room temperature in ambient environments. The measured conductivity is higher than semiconductor such as Ge and Si while slightly lower than carbon, iron, and gold. The first oxide's activation energy was about 0.13 eV in the temperature ranges between 25° C. to 80° C.

X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS) and optical microscopy was used to assess physical characteristics of the first oxide in several pellets from two different batches. For the purposes of the observation, some of the pellets were annealed. The pellets were compared to comparative pellets of TiO₂. The XPS studies of the pellets were performed using a PHI XPS system equipped with an Al X-ray source (incident photon energy of 1486.7 eV). The aperture size was set to about 1.1 mm in diameter. The binding energy of the obtained XPS spectra was calibrated with respect to the C is peak of adventitious carbon at 284.8 eV.

FIG. 7 shows Ti 2p XPS spectra of the pellets containing the first oxide in its pristine state, pellets including the first oxide annealed in air, and TiO₂ reference pellets. The collected data suggests that Ti in the pellets containing the first oxide in its pristine state is dominantly Ti 4+ state, similar to Ti in the pellets including the first oxide annealed in air and in the TiO₂ reference pellets. The observation and the XRD analysis also suggest that the first oxide has a similar, but not identical, crystal structure to MgTi₂O₅, as can be seen in FIG. 8.

The sintered pellets were assessed optically. The surface of the sintered pellets can be seen in FIG. 9A, showing as synthesized pellets featuring black and blue hue on the pellet surface. Three of the sintered pellets were annealed in air at 600° C. for 10 hours. Surface of the annealed pellets changed partially at the edges of the pellets and some of the surface regions of the pellets turned white while some of the surface remained black, as can be observed in FIG. 9B. The annealed pellets were further exposed to additional annealing in air at 1000° C. for 10 hours. The entire surface of the pellets turned white after the secondary round of annealing as can be seen in FIG. 9C. Optical images of the pellets shown in FIGS. 9A-C were collected using a Keyence VHX microscope at magnifications ranging from 100× to 1000×.

Electrical conductivity was assessed for the as-synthesized pellets at about 1.7-8 S/m while the annealed pellets shown at FIG. 9B were found to be less conductive than the as-synthesized pellets at 0.36 S/m. The annealed pellets shown at FIG. 9C were assessed as insulating. The results suggest that the color and its electrical conduction are correlated to oxygen vacancies in the first oxide. Without limiting this disclosure to a single theory, it is believed that annealing in air removes oxygen vacancies, which then leads to color change and loss of electrical conductivity. FIGS. 9A-C imply that oxygen vacancy is the main charge carrier for electrical conduction in the first oxide. When oxygen vacancy is eliminated by the annealing process in air at 1000° C. or otherwise, the first oxide transitions to an insulator.

The as synthesized pellets were further tested for corrosion resistance. Corrosion current measurements were carried out in a three-electrode liquid cell setup. Counter electrode was about 16 cm² Pt-mesh. The reference electrode was a standard Ag/AgCl electrode in KCl solution. Pellets were used as the working electrode with an effective area of about 0.5 cm². For each measurement, one pellet was measured at a time. In total, three pellets were measured. For static corrosion current measurement, pH=2 sulfuric acid was used as electrolyte at 60° C. Static corrosion current was recorded at 1.0 V bias vs Ag/AgCl reference electrode.

The results of the corrosion current measurements are shown in FIG. 10. Corrosion current density for the as-synthesized, pristine first oxide is shown on the bottom, carbon paper on top, and polished stainless steel (SS) 316 in the middle. The pristine MgTi₂O_(5-δ) material's corrosion current density was assessed to be about two orders of magnitude better/lower than the polished SS316 and carbon paper. In other words, corrosion current measured in MgTi₂O_(5-δ) showed that the MgTi₂O_(5-δ) produces ×100 times smaller steady corrosion current when compared to SS316. Overall, the crystalline MgTi₂O_(5-δ) demonstrated good corrosion resistance in acidic environment.

The MgTi₂O_(5-δ) may have corrosion resistance (static corrosion current density) of less than about 0.5-5, 1-3, or 1.5-2.5 μA cm⁻² at pH of 2 at a temperature of about 0 to 80° C., 10 to 60° C., or 20 to 40° C. The MgTi₂O_(5-δ) may have corrosion resistance of less than about 5.0, 4.0, 3.0, 2.5, 2.0, 1.8, 1.6, 1.4, 1.2, 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1 μA cm⁻² at pH of 2 at a temperature of about 0 to 80° C., 10 to 60° C., or 20 to 40° C.

The pellets were also tested for chemical resistivity or inertness. Chemical inertness relates to the first oxide's reactivity with compounds present in the acidic fuel cell environment such as H₃O⁺, F⁻, and SO₄ ⁻. One pristine pellet was crushed into powder, which was tested in Aqua Regia (concentrated HNO₃ and HCl mixture with 3:1 ratio) heated to 100-150° C. The powder did not dissolve, which indicated good chemical stability.

In one or more non-limiting embodiments, the disclosed material, including the first oxide of formula (I) and the second oxide of formula (II), may be used as a catalyst support in the PEMFC. In a PEMFC, an anode and a cathode each may include a catalyst facilitating the reactions of oxygen and hydrogen. The anode catalyst oxidizes the fuel into the hydrogen protons and electrons at the anode while the cathode catalyst catalyzes oxygen reduction reaction which results in formation of water. Due to a more complicated chemistry at the cathode, a higher loading of a catalyst is usually needed at the cathode than at the anode to increase the reaction speed.

A suitable catalyst must be stable enough to withstand the corrosive environment at the cathode as well as sufficiently chemically active to be able to reduce O₂. The catalyst must be also selective enough to produce the desired product while minimizing production of undesirable intermediates. The catalyst layer should be also capable of facilitating release of product water from the catalyst surface to free up catalytic sites once the reaction is complete.

A variety of noble metals have been used as a catalyst. The most commonly-used catalyst is platinum (Pt) due to its excellent catalytic activity and moderate stability to withstand its harsh operating condition. Indeed, Pt is one of the few elements capable of withstanding the acidic (PH<2) operation environment of the fuel cell.

Typically, to increase stability of the catalysts and to prevent their physical detachment from the system, the catalyst materials are typically affixed to catalyst support materials, which are typically solid materials with a high surface area. The catalyst support itself needs to be inert to prevent affecting the catalytic reactions. The most common catalyst supports for PEMFC include graphite, carbon nanofibers, carbon nanotubes, nanospheres, nanoellipsoids, nanorods, the like, or a combination thereof.

Yet, oxidation of these support materials under the fuel cell operating conditions may occur, especially during the start-up/shutdown processes, which may in turn lead to degradation of the catalyst which may be limiting the PEMFC lifetime of PEMFC. For carbon-base supports, the phenomenon is known as carbon corrosion. Therefore, various metal oxides have been studied as a possible alternative catalyst support, as opposed to carbon, due to their tendency to improve the catalyst stability and resistance against further oxidation.

Any catalyst support material needs to meet certain criteria—to be stable in the PEMFC operating conditions, which is usually acidic (i.e., low pH, from pH 1 to 4), and to withstand different voltages which are being applied to the fuel cell (typically, 0 V up to ˜1.2 V vs. SHE).

Among different metal oxides to be used as catalyst support materials in a PEMFC electrode, TiO₂ and SnO₂ have been disclosed as leading candidates. This is due to their stability in the aqueous electrochemical system for TiO₂ and SnO₂: forming a stable oxide where pH can vary from 1 to 4 (i.e., acidic) and voltages between 0 to 1.23 V can also affect the local environment during the PEMFC operation. Recently, Sn-doped TiO₂ was also tested as a catalyst support material for Pt catalyst and reported the following: 1) doping up to 10% Sn in TiO₂ resulted in an increase in the mass activity; 2) catalyst support with 23 to 40% Sn doping in TiO₂ required much less platinum; and, 3) Sn-doped TiO₂ was stable in the acidic conditions at 80° C. at <28% doping of Sn in TiO₂.

In one or more embodiments, the material disclosed herein including the first oxide of formula (I) and the second oxide of formula (II) may be used as a support for a PEMFC catalyst in the fuel cell application, on a cathode, anode, or both. The catalyst may be a noble metal or noble-metal free catalyst. A non-limiting example of a catalyst may be Pt, Pd, Au, Ir, Rh, Ru, or a combination thereof. The catalyst may be an oxidation reduction reaction (ORR) catalyst.

The catalyst may be deposited onto the disclosed material either forming one or more island(s) of catalyst on the catalyst support, as is shown in FIG. 11A or in a core-shell-type configuration, the disclosed material forming the core and the catalyst forming the shell, as is depicted in FIG. 11B. In FIGS. 11A and 11B, 50 denotes the catalyst support and 52 denotes the catalyst. A specific configuration may be tailored depending on the expected performance, cost, and lifetime of the PEMFC device and/or stack system. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) cross-section images of MgTi₂O_(5-δ) serving as a catalyst support material and Pt used as a catalyst are shown in FIGS. 12A and 12B. The catalyst support material may have even or uneven surface. The catalyst support material may serve as a substrate for the catalyst material. The catalyst support material may physically and/or chemically bind the catalyst.

The catalyst support material including MgTi₂O_(5-δ) is chemically stable in acidic environment and has high electrochemical stability against corrosion and oxidation environments during fuel cell operation conditions, as is demonstrated herein.

DFT calculations were performed to construct the interface between a Pt metal catalyst and MgTi₂O_(5-δ). DFT calculations were carried out within the Vienna Ab-initio Simulation Package (VASP) with projected augmented wave potentials and Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof (PBE) formulation of the generalized gradient approximation (GGA). A plane-wave basis set cutoff energy of 520 eV was used. The DFT calculations were used to verify that Pt and MgTi₂O_(5-δ) may form a stable interface, which may enable utilization of MgTi₂O_(5-δ) as an oxide support material for a PEMFC catalyst.

Table 2 below shows the DFT-calculated interfacial energy between a Pt catalyst and MgTi₂O_(5-δ) support. Specifically, energetically-stable Pt surface facets (111), (100), and (110) were examined on the (110) MgTi₂O_(5-δ). Table 2 illustrates that the calculated DFT interfacial energies between (110) MgTi₂O_(5-δ) and Pt catalyst (regardless of the facets) are predicted to be a negative value. A negative DFT interfacial energy indicates that two chemical systems will form a stable interface. Table 2 further shows DFT interfacial energies of Pt on TiO₂ and SnO₂ for comparison. As can be seen in Table 2, the interfacial energy for MgTi₂O_(5-δ) and SnO₂/TiO₂ are comparable. For the DFT calculations, ΔE_(int)=E_(0,total)−(E_(0,Pt,surf)+E_(0,MOx)), where the internal energy (E₀) may be obtained from the DFT calculations.

TABLE 2 Calculated DFT interfacial energy (ΔE_(int)) between a Pt catalyst and various oxide support materials DFT interface between Pt surface and an oxide support material ΔE_(int) [J/m²] FIG. (111) Pt ∥ (110) MgTi₂O_(5-δ) −1.83 13B, 13E (100) Pt ∥ (110) MgTi₂O_(5-δ) −2.01 13A, 13D (110) Pt ∥ (110) MgTi₂O_(5-δ) −1.35 13C, 13F (111) Pt ∥ (101) TiO₂ (Anatase) −1.48 — (111) Pt ∥ (110) SnO₂ (Rutile) −1.93 —

FIGS. 13A-F show the constructed interfaces between various Pt surface facets and (110) MgTi₂O_(5-δ) before and after the DFT relaxation calculations. Specifically, FIGS. 13A-C show the constructed interfaces before DFT relaxation, FIGS. 13D-F show the interfaces after DFT relaxation. It is apparent from FIGS. 13D-F that after the DFT relaxation, Pt(100) and Pt(111) on MgTi₂O_(5-δ) look very similar to each other.

Table 1 further shows that (100) Pt may bind most strongly on (110) MgTi₂O_(5-δ), while (110) Pt may bind less strongly on (110) MgTi₂O_(5-δ). While the (111) facet seems to be the most energetically favored surface facet in Pt nanoparticles, (110) and (100) are also observed at the corner and edge of the Pt particles. Depending on the synthesis temperature, time, pH, precursor materials, and route, it is possible to control the size and shape of Pt nanoparticles, as shown in FIG. 14. Table 2 indicates that all Pt facets bind on MgTi₂O_(5-δ); (100) and (111) facets may bind more strongly than (110). Thus, regardless of the size and shape of the Pt catalyst particles, DFT calculations suggest that a stable interface between the Pt catalyst and MgTi₂O_(5-δ) will form.

Conductive and anti-corrosive behavior of the disclosed material as a catalyst support was further investigated. Table 3 below shows DFT binding energies (ΔE_(b)) of H₂O and H₃O on Pt supported by various metal oxide supports. Relative binding energies (ΔE_(rel,b)) are also provided, where the binding energies on pure Pt (111) are used as the reference (i.e., zero energy). The calculated binding energies of H₂O and H₃O of Pt supported on MgTi₂O_(5-δ) are between Pt supported on SnO₂ and TiO₂. This indicates that Pt on MgTi₂O_(5-δ) may provide more stability than Pt supported on SnO₂ while it can provide more reactivity compared to Pt supported on TiO₂.

TABLE 3 DFT binding energies (ΔE_(b)) of H₂O and H₃O on Pt supported by various metal oxide supports DFT interface between Pt surface and an oxide ΔE_(b, H2O) ΔE_(relb, H2O) ΔE_(b, H3O) ΔE_(relb, H3O) support material [eV] [eV] [eV] [eV] (111) Pt ∥ (110) −0.311 −0.157 −0.634 −0.227 MgTi₂O_(5-δ) (100) Pt ∥ (110) −0.217 −0.063 −0.588 −0.181 MgTi₂O_(5-δ) (110) Pt ∥ (110) −0.309 −0.155 −0.497 −0.090 MgTi₂O_(5-δ) (111) Pt ∥ (101) TiO₂ −0.080 +0.074 −0.349 +0.058 (Anatase) (111) Pt ∥ (110) SnO₂ −0.492 −0.338 −0.837 −0.430 (Rutile) Pure (111) Pt −0.154 — −0.407 —

As can be seen in Table 3, the relative binding energies of H₂ for Pt on MgTi₂O_(5-δ) range between −0.063 and −0.157 eV. For the case of H₃O, the binding energies vary from −0.090 eV to −0.027 eV. For both of these cases, the binding energies are lower than Pt supported on TiO₂, while higher than Pt supported on SnO₂. Thus, as was stated above, Pt on MgTi₂O_(5-δ) may have more “stability” against the reactant than Pt supported on SnO₂ and may have more “reactivity” than Pt on TiO₂. Additionally, the MgTi₂O_(5-δ)'s anti-corrosive behavior and enhanced electronic conductivity discussed above and referenced in FIGS. 6 and 10, respectively, provides an additional advantage for the MgTi₂O_(5-δ) to be used as a catalyst support over the current state-of-the-art TiO₂ and SnO₂ catalyst support systems.

The disclosed catalyst support material may be prepared by a variety of methods including, but not limited to a solution-based process, a solid-state process, a heat-treatment, and/or electrochemical methods. The catalyst support material may be un-doped, and/or doped partially with nitrogen, carbon, fluorine, the like, or other elements to further enhance electronic conductivities. Non-limiting examples of other elements may include other d⁰ metals such as Zr⁴⁺, Hf⁴⁺, V⁵⁺, and/or Cr⁶⁺, and/or d¹⁰ metals such as Zn²⁺, Ga³⁺, and/or Pb⁴⁺, as well as Al³⁺ (no d electrons), where do and do metals and Al³⁺ are typically more difficult to be oxidized.

A non-limiting example preparation method may include dissolving metal-containing precursor chemicals such as M(NO₃)_(x), MCl_(x), M(OH)_(x), and MO_(x), where M=Mg and Ti in a solvent to form an initial mixture. The solvent may be water or an organic solvent. The pH of the solution may be adjusted, maintained, or controlled by the presence of oxidizing or reducing chemicals. The initial mixture may be heat-treated between about 100 to 2000° C., 200 to 1500° C., or 300 to 1000° C. with a various aging time of about 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 12, 16, 24, 36, 48, 60, or 72 hours to form the catalyst support material. During the heat treatment, the gas environment may be controlled by N₂, Ar, H₂, O₂, air, and/or vacuum. A catalyst material such as Pt may be deposited on the catalyst support material afterwards, either using solid-state, solution-based method, and/or various deposition techniques.

Various size of oxide precursor materials such as MgO, TiO, TiO₂, Mg(OH)₂, or the like may be mixed and synthesized via a solid-state method such as a ball-milling process, followed by a secondary heat treatment.

The herein-disclosed catalyst supports may be prepared into high surface area particles by a hydrothermal method followed by a subsequent annealing process in an oxygen-free atmosphere. The non-limiting example BET of the herein-disclosed catalyst support may be about 100 to 1500, 150 to 850, or 200 to 550 m²/g. The non-limiting example BET of the herein-disclosed catalyst support may be about, at least about, or up to about 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, 1000, 1050, 1100, 1150, 1200, 1250, 1300, 1350, 1400, 1450, or 1500 m²/g or any range in between. In comparison, Vulcan XC-72 material typically has BET specific area of 250 m²/g; high surface area carbons may have the BET specific area of up to about 1,500 m²/g: e.g., Ketjen Black EC 600JD, Ultra High Surface Area Carbon (USAC), and so on.

Another non-limiting example BET area of the herein-disclosed catalyst support may be below 100 m²/g such as 0.1 to 99, 1 to 50, or 5 to 25 m²/g. The BET area of the herein-disclosed catalyst support may be about, at least about, or up to about 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 3.0, 3.2, 3.4, 3.6, 3.8, 4.0, 4.2, 4.4, 4.6, 4.8, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 8.0, 8.5, 9.0, 9.5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, or 99 m²/g or any range in between.

Alternatively, the herein-disclosed catalyst support material may be prepared by a chemical reaction under a relatively high temperature of about 400 to 2000° C., 800 to 1800° C., or 1200 to 1500° C. in vacuum, N₂, Ar, or Ar/H₂ environment followed by mechanical milling. The preparation atmosphere should be kept free of oxygen such that oxygen is not supplied during the reaction and is actively removed from the reaction environment. The herein-disclosed catalyst supports may be prepared by a colloidal synthesis route followed by subsequent annealing steps in varying atmosphere. The herein-disclosed catalyst support may be prepared by a combustion synthesis or flame synthesize method followed by subsequent annealing steps in an oxygen-free environment.

The disclosed material including the first oxide and the second oxide may be used for catalysis in a variety of applications including PEMFC, anion exchange membrane fuel cell (AEMFC), either at the cathode or the anode, proton exchange membrane electrolyzer, chemical synthesis, air purification including purifying exhaust from an internal combustion engine, photo-catalysis for water splitting cells, or photo-catalysis of redox media for water cleaning.

The herein-disclosed catalyst support material may be further mixed with carbon and/or another type of conductive polymer to increase conductivity. Carbon includes, but is not limited to, amorphous carbon, Denka black, Ketjen black, acetylene black, carbon nanotube, carbon fibers, graphene, graphite, graphyne, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, etc. The ratio of the mixture may be about 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, 1:5, 1:6, 1:7, 1:8, 1:9, 1:10, 10:1, 9:1, 8:1, 7:1, 6:1, 5:1, 4:1, 3:1, or 2:1. Alternatively, carbon and/or another type of additional support material may form one or more additional sublayers, serving as a support for the disclosed material.

The herein-disclosed catalyst support material may be mixed with one or more types of catalyst support materials such as additional oxides, carbides, or intermetallic compounds. Example oxide materials may include SnO₂, MoO₃, Nb₂O₅, Ta₂O₅, TiO₂, WO₃, SnMo₄O₆, and/or TiNb₃O₆, GeO₂, MoO₂, NbO₂, SnO, Ti₃O₅, SnWO₄, WO₂, Nb₂SnO₆, Sn₂WO₅, SnGeO₃, Ta₂SnO₆, TiSn₂O₄, Ti₆O, or mixtures thereof. Example carbides may include Nb₆C₅, Mo₂C, Ta₂C, Ti₈C₅, WC, TaC, Nb₂SnC, Ti₂GeC, Ti₃SnC₂, Ti₃GeC₂, MoC, or mixtures thereof. Non-limiting examples of binary or ternary intermetallic compounds may be MoW, NbSn₂, Nb₃Sn, Sn₂Mo, TaSn₂, Ta₃Sn, TaW₃, TiMo, TiMo₃, Ti₂Mo, Ti₃Mo, TiNb, Ti₂Sn, Ti₂Sn₃, Ti₃Sn, Ti₆Sn₅, NbMo₂W, TaMo₂W, TiMo₂W, Ti₂NbSn, GeMo₃, Ge₂Mo, NbGe₂, Nb₅Ge₃, SnGe, TaGe₂, Ta₃Ge, Ta₅Ge₃, TiGe₂, Ti₅Ge₃, Ti₆Ge₅, or mixtures thereof. Depending on the secondary heat-treatment conditions such as temperature, presence of oxidizing/reducing agents, the amount of oxides (as well as their compositions) in the surface film and bulk region of the intermetallic component may be further controlled.

EXAMPLES

Set B

To validate the DFT-calculated results, MgTi₂O_(5-δ) was used to form pellets by a method described under EXAMPLES, Set A above. Subsequently, a catalyst material including Pt was sputtered onto the pellets, and the catalyst support with the catalyst were exposed to annealing at 600° C. for 10 hours. FIG. 12A shows an example of one of the pellets including the sputtered catalyst before the annealing process. FIG. 12B shows one of the pellets after the annealing process. The dashed line indicates the interface between Pt and MgTi₂O_(5-δ) in both FIGS. 12A and B. FIGS. 12A and 12B are scanning electron microscope (SEM) cross-section images. FIG. 12B shows that the Pt catalyst bonded very well on the MgTi₂O_(5-δ) support surface. No phase separation was observed. The experiment showed that Pt formed a good contact with the MgTi₂O_(5-δ) material. Even after the heat treatment of 600° C. for 10 hours, Pt remained in intimate contact with the MgTi₂O_(5-δ) material surface, suggesting a good contact.

The anticorrosive, conductive material disclosed herein includes the first oxide, MgTi₂O_(5-δ), described above in a combination with a second oxide having a general formula (II): Ti_(a)O_(b)  (II),

where,

1<=a<=20 and 1<=b<=30, wherein a and b may be any number between 1 and 20 or 30, respectively, optionally including a fractional part such as decimals. a and/or b may be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 or any ranges of numbers within the span of 1 to 20 or 1 to 30, respectively.

Non-limiting example compounds of the second oxide having the formula (II) include TiO, TiO₂, Ti₂O₃, Ti₃O₅, Ti₂O, Ti₃O, Ti₆O, Ti₄₇, TiO₁₁, Ti₅O₉, Ti₅O₁₃, Ti₁₉O₃, Ti₇O₁₃, Ti₅O₈, and Ti₁₃O₂₂. The second oxide may be Ti₂₃. The second oxide may be an oxide described above. The second oxide may be any and all oxides described above with the exception of at least one of the oxides described above. The second oxide may include a variety of facets such as (012), (110), (010), (001), etc.

Depending on the composition and crystal structure of Ti_(a)O_(b), the second oxide of formula (II) may be metallic (E_(g)=0), semi-metallic (0<E_(g)<=1 eV), semiconductor (1<=E_(g)<=2 eV), or insulating (E_(g)>2 eV).

The second oxide of formula (II) may form a part of the disclosed material or matrix including the first oxide of formula (I). The second oxide may exist as a part of a polycrystalline structure, be a part of or exist within the MgTi₂O₅ matrix. The second oxide may exist as a segregated polycrystalline phase and/or be located at, on, or near grain boundaries, i.e. within 1 nm to 100 μm (100,000 nm), 10 nm to 10 μm (10,000 nm), or 100 nm to 1 m (1,000 nm) from the grain boundaries. The second oxide may exist as a segregated polycrystalline phase within the distance of about 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000, 5000, 10,000, 50,000, or 100,000 nm from the grain boundaries. Depending on the materials system, grain sizes can range from about 1 to 100, 5 to 80, or 10 to 60 m. The grain size may range from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48, 50, 52, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 76, 78, 80, 82, 84, 86, 88, 90, 92, 94, 96, 98, or 100 m. Alternatively, the size of dislocations may begin to approach the size of the grains. At a grain size of about 5 to 15, 7 to 12, or 8 to 10 nm, one or two dislocations may fit inside a grain. The grain size may be about 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or 15 nm. Additionally, the second oxide of formula (II) may form a grain, where the size may vary from about 10 to 50, 15 to 40, or 20 to 30 m, next to the grain boundary of the first oxide of formula (I). The grain size may be about 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48, or 50 m.

The amount of the second oxide within the disclosed material, matrix, or total composite may be about, at least about, or up to about 0.5 to 50, 2 to 30, or 3 to 15 wt. %, based on the total amount of material, matrix, or composite. The amount may be about, at least about, or up to about 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, 10, 10.5, 11, 11.5, 12, 12.5, 13, 13.5, 14, 14.5, 15, 15.5, 16, 16.5, 17, 17.5, 18, 18.5, 19, 19.5, 20, 20.5, 21, 21.5, 22, 22.5, 23, 23.5, 24, 24.5, 25, 25.5, 26, 26.5, 27, 27.5, 28, 28.5, 29, 29.5, 30, 30.5, 31, 31.5, 32, 32.5, 33, 33.5, 34, 34.5, 35, 35.5, 36, 36.5, 37, 37.5, 38, 38.5, 39, 39.5, 40, 40.5, 41, 41.5, 42, 42.5, 43, 43.5, 44, 44.5, 45, 45.5, 46, 46.5, 47, 47.5, 48, 48.5, 49, 49.5, or 50 wt. %, based on the total amount of material, matrix, or composite.

The amount of the second oxide, which is detectable using X-ray diffraction technique, may be above about 5 wt. %, based on the total amount of material, matrix, or composite. In another embodiment, the amount of the second oxide, detectable with advanced techniques including synchrotron-based analysis, induction coupled plasma mass spectroscopy, x-ray photon spectroscopy, or high-resolution transmission electron microscope, may be less than about 0.5, 1.5, or 2.5 wt. %.

The oxide of formula (II) may be conductive and anti-corrosive at the same time, contributing to desirable properties of the matrix, material, or composition including the first oxide of formula (I). DFT calculations were conducted to confirm conductive and anti-corrosive behavior of the second oxide.

For example, FIGS. 15A and 15B show chemical structure of Ti₂₃, specifically chemical structure of Ti₂O₃(012), where a single hydrogen atom is adsorbed on surface oxygen atom. The large, middle, and small circles represent Ti, 0, and H atom, respectively. FIG. 15A shows the top view of (012) Ti₂O₃ while FIG. 15B shows the side view of (012) Ti₂O₃.

The DFT calculations described above revealed that the (012) facet is the most dominant surface facet for R-3c Ti₂O₃ with the calculated surface energy of 1.01 J/m². The DFT calculations were also used to assess anti-corrosive behavior of the (012) Ti₂O₃ facet. Table 3 below shows a comparison of a single atom hydrogen adsorption energy on TiO_(x) and MgTi₂O_(5-δ),

TABLE 4 Calculated Hydrogen adsorption energy (ΔE_(ads, H)) on Ti₂O₅ and MgTi₂O_(5-δ) TiO₂ TiO₂ Ti₂O₃ MgTi₂O_(5-δ) (anatase) (rutile) TiO ΔE_(ads, H) [eV/H] 1.047 1.377 0.039 −0.395 0.763

A negative DFT-calculated adsorption energy indicates that adsorbate (e.g., a single hydrogen atom) binds more strongly to the substrate. Thus, to protect the substrate from hydrogen (i.e., acidic environment), it is most desirable to have a high adsorption energy. As Table 4 above demonstrates, Ti₂O₃ has the highest adsorption energy among other Ti—O bearing compounds. As was described above, and is confirmed in Table 4, the single hydrogen DFT-calculated adsorption energy for MgTi₂O_(5-δ) is the most positive among the calculated materials.

Regarding dissociation energy, for anti-corrosive and conductive behavior, it is most desirable to have high hydrogen dissociation energy and low hydrogen coverage. FIGS. 5A-5E show chemical structures of MgTi₂O₅, MgTi₂O_(5-δ), anatase TiO₂, rutile TiO₂, and TiO. Both side and top views are shown in FIG. 5A-5E. FIGS. 15A and 15B, as was mentioned above, show chemical structure of a non-limiting example of the second oxide, specifically Ti₂O₃. In the depicted chemical structures of FIGS. 5A-5E and 15A, 15B, each surface is fully passivated by hydrogen atoms (i.e., hydrogen dissociation). While the hydrogen coverage, that is a ratio between hydrogen atom and surface oxygen atoms, for TiO and TiO₂ are 100%, both MgTi₂O₅ and MgTi₂O_(5-δ) have reduced hydrogen coverages at 71.4 and 30.8%, respectively. In the case of the first oxide, MgTi₂O_(5-δ), the hydrogen dissociation energy (eV/H) is the highest at 1.159 eV/H. Similarly, Ti₂O₃ also has a reduced hydrogen coverage at 50%, while the hydrogen dissociation energy is comparable, at 0.966 eV/H. The DFT-calculated hydrogen dissociation energies and hydrogen coverages for various oxides are summarized in Table 1 above. In comparison to the values of Table 1, the dissociation energy of the second oxide, specifically Ti₂O₃ is 0.966 ev/H and hydrogen coverage is 50%, which allows for protection in acidic environments.

The first-principles DFT calculations were carried out to examine conductive behavior of Ti₂O₃. The calculations were carried out within the Vienna Ab-initio Simulation Package (VASP) with projected augmented wave potentials and Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof (PBE) formulation of the generalized gradient approximation (GGA). A plane-wave basis set cutoff energy of 520 eV was used.

From the DOS simulation of FIG. 16, showing the calculated electronic structure of Ti₂O₃, it was found that the Fermi Level (E_(F)) of the Ti₂O₃ compound is occupied, which indicates that the structure is metallic. The Fermi level (E_(F)) was set at x=0. Below the fermi level (E_(F)) is the occupied state; and, above the fermi level is unoccupied state. For fuel cell applications, such as BPP coating or oxide catalyst support, it is important that the oxide candidate exhibits both anti-corrosiveness and conducting behavior. Ti₂O₃, without any materials modifications, is a zero-bandgap material, showing conducting behavior, when utilized for fuel cell applications.

FIG. 17 shows XRD patterns for both orthorhombic MgTi₂O₅ (Cmcm) and trigonal Ti₂O₃ (R-3c) phases. For the composite of MgTi₂O_(5-δ) and Ti₂O₃, where MgTi₂O₅ is the majority of the phases, the XRD pattern includes all the major peaks for MgTi₂O₅ from the left panel in FIG. 17. At the same time, the main peaks of Ti₂O₃ including but not limited to (012), (104), (110), and others displayed in the right panel of FIG. 17 may show as impurity peaks at the given two theta locations. Typically, the resolution of XRD varies depending on the X-ray source, current (mA or A), voltage (kV), scan rate, etc. The XRD patterns provided in FIG. 17 are calculated on the most commonly used Cu-Kα x-ray frequency, which corresponds to an X-ray wavelength of 1.5406 Å. Depending on the XRD peak location between the two phases and the actual composition percentage, it may be also possible to observe different type of peak shapes, e.g., double peak, feet, shoulder, peak broadening, etc. as the Ti₂O₃ peaks may merge with the MgTi₂O₅ peaks and change its peak shape.

The material properties of Ti_(a)O_(b) may be tuned similarly as with the oxide of formula (I), for example by introducing oxygen vacancies, by cation doping, or anion doping. Alteration of material properties may be provided by a variety of methods, for example by using different chemical precursors or by controlling the heat treatment environment (e.g., use of oxidizing/reducing gas).

A non-limiting example of a cation dopant may include but is not limited to Ge, Nb, Mo, Sn, Ta, W, or their combination. The oxide of formula (II) may be mixed with one or more conducting agents such as carbon and/or one or more conductive polymers.

A method of producing the disclosed material including the first and second oxides is disclosed herein. The method may include producing the first oxide as was described above with respect to the preparation of the first oxide of formula (I).

The method may include preparing the second oxide of formula (II). The second oxide may be prepared as nanoparticles. A preparation method may include, for example, a water hydrolysis and precipitation methods followed by annealing in vacuum or in a reducing environment such as N₂, Ar, H₂, H₂/N₂, H₂/Ar, etc.

Alternatively, the second oxide nanoparticles may be prepared by a hydro-thermal reaction followed by an annealing process in vacuum or reducing environments such as N₂, Ar, H₂, H₂/N₂, H₂/Ar, etc.

The method may include preparing the second oxide as a thin film coating from a few nm to 250 m thick, which may be produced by physical vapor deposition followed by an annealing step in vacuum or reducing environments such as N₂, Ar, H₂, H₂/N₂, H₂/Ar, etc. The film thickness may be about, up to about, or at least about 5 nm to 250 m (250,000 nm), 50 nm to 25 m (25,000 nm), or 500 to 2.5 m (2,500 nm). The film thickness may be about, up to about, or at least about 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 250, 500, 1000, 1200, 5000, 10,000, 25,000, 50,000, 100,000, or 250,000 nm.

The method may include combining the first and second metal oxides, for example embedding the second oxide within a matrix of the first oxide. The method may include controlling the oxidizing/reducing environment to control the oxidation state of Ti. For example, to synthesize more Ti²⁺ (similar to TiO), the method may include increasing the reducing conditions. The increasing may include controlling several factors including but not limited to gas flow, elevated temperature synthesis, choice of precursors, the like, or a combination thereof. To induce more Ti⁴⁺ character, the method may include increasing the oxidizing conditions. The oxidation state of Ti³⁺, similar to Ti₂O₃, may be also induced by controlling the annealing conditions, gas environment, and choosing a different Ti-bearing precursors.

In addition, the method may include using at least two different Ti precursors which may help induce different oxidation states within a single batch. For example, mixing various ratios of TiO and TiO₂ as a starting precursor may generate different oxidation states. Precursor materials may include, but are not limited to, metal chloride, metal nitrate, metal sulfate, metal carbonate, etc. Alternatively, the method may implement using a dopant (p or n type) to change the local environment. For instance, if the average oxidation state of Ti₂O₃-embedded MgTi₂O_(5-δ) is found to be 3.7+, the method may include adding a metal dopant with common oxidation state of 4+ or higher (e.g., Sn⁴⁺, Mn⁴⁺, Ge⁴⁺, Si⁴⁺, Ru⁵⁺, V⁵⁺, Nb⁵⁺, etc.), to reduce neighboring Ti next to the dopant to lower oxidation states. Alternatively still, the method may include adding another dopant with a lower oxidation state (e.g., 2+, 3+, etc.) to increase the Ti oxidation state toward 4+.

The disclosed material may be used in applications requiring both corrosion resistance and good electrical conductivity. For example, the disclosed material may be used as a BPP coating, in a BPP bulk portion, in a BPP surface portion, or a combination thereof. Alternatively, the disclosed material may be used as an anticorrosive coating in automotive parts, aerospace parts, oil and gas plants, or large-scale manufacturing. In an alternative embodiment, the disclosed material may be used as a catalyst support material, for example for PEMFC applications or other catalytic application, as was discussed above.

The disclosed material coating on a metal BPP may be realized by different deposition techniques. A non-limiting example may involve spray coating the disclosed material containing solvents on the BPP, followed by a drying process. Alternatively, the method may involve physical or chemical vapor deposition. As yet another alternative, an atomic layer deposition (ALD) on to the metal substrate may take place. Depending on the choice of precursor, oxidizing or reducing environment, humidity, and substrate, the degree of oxygen vacancy in MgTi₂O_(5-δ) may vary, leading to different conductivity and anti-corrosion behavior.

The processes, methods, or algorithms disclosed herein can be deliverable to/implemented by a processing device, controller, or computer, which can include any existing programmable electronic control unit or dedicated electronic control unit. Similarly, the processes, methods, or algorithms can be stored as data and instructions executable by a controller or computer in many forms including, but not limited to, information permanently stored on non-writable storage media such as ROM devices and information alterably stored on writeable storage media such as floppy disks, magnetic tapes, CDs, RAM devices, and other magnetic and optical media. The processes, methods, or algorithms can also be implemented in a software executable object. Alternatively, the processes, methods, or algorithms can be embodied in whole or in part using suitable hardware components, such as Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs), state machines, controllers or other hardware components or devices, or a combination of hardware, software and firmware components.

While exemplary embodiments are described above, it is not intended that these embodiments describe all possible forms encompassed by the claims. The words used in the specification are words of description rather than limitation, and it is understood that various changes can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. As previously described, the features of various embodiments can be combined to form further embodiments that may not be explicitly described or illustrated. While various embodiments could have been described as providing advantages or being preferred over other embodiments or prior art implementations with respect to one or more desired characteristics, those of ordinary skill in the art recognize that one or more features or characteristics can be compromised to achieve desired overall system attributes, which depend on the specific application and implementation. These attributes can include, but are not limited to cost, strength, durability, life cycle cost, marketability, appearance, packaging, size, serviceability, weight, manufacturability, ease of assembly, etc. As such, to the extent any embodiments are described as less desirable than other embodiments or prior art implementations with respect to one or more characteristics, these embodiments are not outside the scope of the disclosure and can be desirable for particular applications. 

What is claimed is:
 1. An anticorrosive, conductive material comprising: a first oxide having oxygen vacancies and a formula (I): MgTi₂O_(5-δ)  (I), where _(δ) is any number between 0 and 3 including a fractional part denoting the oxygen vacancies; and a second oxide having a formula (II): Ti_(a)O_(b)  (II), where 1<=a<=20 and 1<=b<=30, optionally including a fractional part, the first and second oxides of formulas (I) and (II) forming a polycrystalline matrix.
 2. The material of claim 1, wherein the second oxide is metallic.
 3. The material of claim 1, wherein Ti_(a)O_(b) is Ti₂O₃.
 4. The material of claim 3, wherein Ti₂O₃ forms a segregated polycrystalline phase.
 5. The material of claim 3, wherein Ti₂O₃ is located within about 1 nm to about 100 μm from grain boundaries of the matrix.
 6. The material of claim 1, wherein the matrix comprises at least about 0.5 wt. % Ti_(a)O_(b), based on the total weight of the material.
 7. The material of claim 1, wherein at least one of the first and second oxides of formulas (I) and (II) comprises a dopant including Ge, Nb, Mo, Sn, Ta, W, or a combination thereof.
 8. The material of claim 1, wherein at least one of the first and second oxides of formulas (I) and (II) comprises a conducting agent.
 9. A fuel cell system comprising: an anticorrosive, conductive polycrystalline matrix having: a first metal oxide having oxygen vacancies and a formula (I): MgTi₂O_(5-δ)  (I), where _(δ) is any number between 0 and 3 including a fractional part denoting the oxygen vacancies; and a second metal oxide having a formula (II): Ti_(a)O_(b)  (II), where 1<=a<=20 and 1<=b<=30, optionally including a fractional part.
 10. The system of claim 9, wherein Ti_(a)O_(b) is Ti₂O₃.
 11. The system of claim 10, wherein Ti₂O₃ forms a segregated polycrystalline phase within the matrix.
 12. The system of claim 10, wherein Ti₂O₃ is located about 1 nm to about 100 μm from grain boundaries of the matrix.
 13. The system of claim 9, wherein the matrix comprises about at least about 0.5 wt. % Ti_(a)O_(b), based on the total weight of the matrix.
 14. The system of claim 9, wherein at least one of the first and second oxides comprises a dopant including Ge, Nb, Mo, Sn, Ta, W, or a combination thereof.
 15. The system of claim 9 further comprising a bipolar plate including the anticorrosive, conductive polycrystalline matrix.
 16. A fuel cell catalyst support material comprising: a first metal oxide having oxygen vacancies and a formula (I): MgTi₂O_(5-δ)  (I), where _(δ) is any number between 0 and 3 including a fractional part denoting the oxygen vacancies; and a second metal oxide having a formula (II): Ti_(a)O_(b)  (II), where 1<=a<=20 and 1<=b<=30, optionally including a fractional part, the first and second oxides forming a polycrystalline matrix.
 17. The material of claim 16, wherein Ti_(a)O_(b) is Ti₂O₃.
 18. The material of claim 17, wherein Ti₂O₃ forms a segregated polycrystalline phase.
 19. The material of claim 17, wherein Ti₂O₃ is located about 1 nm to about 100 μm from grain boundaries of the matrix.
 20. The material of claim 16, wherein the matrix comprises at least about 0.5 wt. % Ti_(a)O_(b), based on the total weight of the material. 